Transformation of the Meaning of the Body -
Plurality of the Body in Japanese Cultural Contexts
Satoshi Shimizu

Which body in which sport?
Before British modern sports spread throughout the world, there were many more festivities in communities. If sport is “something that unbends the mind by turning it off from care” (Malcolmson 1973, 4), it is not only what we know from modern times.
The situation of early British sport can be described as follows: A profane and pleasure-seeking atmosphere dominated the wake. In a great many parishes the feast must have been one of the main occasions each year for good eating and abundant drinking, for music and dancing, for sports and entertainments, and for hospitality. A wake normally included several of the familiar sports and pastimes of the period: wrestling, or boxing, or cudgeling; perhaps donkey racing, a wheelbarrow race (while blindfolded), a smock race for women; contests might be arranged in hot hasty-pudding eating, grinning through a horse collar (the funniest won), chasing a greased pig, running in sacks, or smoking pipes of tobacco; at some wakes bull-baiting, cock-fighting, or badger-baiting were featured. The wake was a community's own petty carnival. Often there were stalls with gingerbread, nuts, and fruit; sometimes a traveling fiddler attended to play for the dancers; and housewives usually made special preparations for the entertainments, which were expected of them (Malcolmson 1973, 19).
However, to men who especially valued industriousness, frugality, and prudence, many of the traditional diversions were apt to appear scandalously self-indulgent and dissipated - wasteful of time, energy and money (Malcolmson 1973, 89). On the other hand, it was argued that sport was the training ground for courage, perseverance, physical vigour, and group loyalty (Malcolmson 1973, 167). Athletic sports were said to be “an excellent preparation for the military exercises, and render men fit to become defenders of the country” (Lawrence 1747).
We can see the transformation of the meaning of ‘body’ through a historical perspective and cultural contexts (Mauss 1968, Lévi-Strauss 1968, Fairs 1976, Bourdieu 1980, 1987, Heinemann 1980, Yamaguchi 1982, Eichberg 1991, 1993, Harvey et al. 1991, Theberge 1991, Loy et al. 1993, Maguire 1993, Shimizu 1993). The “sporting body” was understood on the base of the control of violence (Elias 1939), of the ‘disciplined body’ (Foucault 1975), and of market economy, puritanism and capitalism as well as vanishing traditional habits in local communities.
Then, what is the meaning of “body” in Japan? What elements have shaped and redefined the meaning of physicality? In this paper, I first note the plurality of meaning in Taisô and Radio Taisô in relation to body culture in Japan (Korsgaard 1986, Shilling 1991, Eichberg 1996, Shimizu 1998). Second, I discuss how Hara (or Tanden, the lower abdomen empowered), Ki and Nanba (special coordinated movement) and their development have been stifled through Western doctrines and methods of physical being. The practice of Taisô creates conflicts with traditional bodily skills, which people have obtained through the long-term evolution of their civilization. Third, I discuss the meaning of today's physicality and the Japanese body as seen through education and Japanese sports.
In summary, I discuss how the meaning of “body” is derived in cultural contexts, and how the formation of power is created in that process; for example, through conflict between le pouvoir (the public power) and les puissances (the power of civil sociality) (Maffesoli 1996, Eichberg 1998). This invites to discuss the origin of people's identity through the body.

Taisô in Japan
It was Amane Nishi, a founder of Japanese philosophical jargon and author of soldier's moral law by the Ministry of Army, who originally introduced the Japanese word Taisô as an equivalent to the foreign words gymnastiek, gymnastics and gymnastique, in Dutch, English and French respectively (Ohba 1991). Nishi most likely translated the expression “art d'exercer le corps” in the 1868 edition of Noël's French-Japanese Dictionary (which carries the seals of both the Army Library and Army College of Japan) into Taisô-jyutsu, which later became Taisô or Taijyutsu.
At that time, the Japanese Army introduced the ‘art d'exercer le corps’ as a method to train soldiers physically in combination with military drill commands as a means of improving their basic physical strength. Some of the books written on this form of training carry the seals of the Numazu Military School, the Army College or the Army Library. Such records are meaningful for studying the origin of Taisô in Japan.
The first university established in Japan, Nankô (1871), used the word Taisô in its Shatyu-Taisô-Hôzu (Illustration of Body and Taisô), published in May 1872, and in July 1874, the Ministry of Education and Culture published Taisô-Sho (The Book of Taisô), in which the word Taisô is commonly used. Compulsory use of the word Taisô began with the Revised Curriculum of Elementary Schools implemented on 19 May 1873.
Thus, Taisô was in the beginning deeply associated with military drills as a result of Nishi's official positions as a concurrent member in the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Ministry of Army. In this sense, it Taisô was linked to the issue of how to build a modern army structure nationwide.
The primary theme in constructing a modern nation at that time was to improve bodily physique and to nurture strong modern soldiers. For this purpose, it became a great theme for the nation to improve the physical strength of its citizens. As a result, Taisô became deeply associated with disciplinary education and physical training in schools in particular.
Arinori Mori, who became the first Japanese Minister of Education and Culture in 1885, adopted a policy of disciplinary education and physical training, and introduced Taisô as a required subject at schools in the School Laws promulgated in 1886. In the same year, he issued the Normal School's Law “for the purpose of training teachers how to educate students in a fashion that nurtures a serious disposition yet obedience and friendship” (Taga 1960, 191). Under this law, all students that attended Normal Schools received military Taisô training and were required to live in dormitories to experience disciplined lifestyle. Mori believed that being obedient to rules and orders and friendly to others while maintaining a serious attitude were the three essential elements to be realized in education. Therefore, he attached importance to physical training complemented by discipline. Article 11 of the Curriculum for Elementary Schools (enacted in 1891) prescribes, “The objective of Taisô is to provide balanced growth for school children, enabling them to maintain their health and have cheerful, strong spirit. And it is also to provide habit of obeying rules” (Takenoshita 1951, 30). Taisô became a tool for improving health and hygiene in society as well as heightening group consciousness and strengthening the awareness of obeying rules and superiors.
The first Japanese Teachers' Curriculum of Taisô as a Subject was made by Michiakira Nagai and others in 1913. He studied Swedish gymnastic exercise and sports in U.S.A., Britain and Sweden, and to make disciplined body more popular in school education that originated from Arinori Mori. He obtained professorships at Tokyo Higher Normal School and Tokyo Womens Higher Normal School after studying abroad. There, he introduced Swedish gymnastics with Taisô as the core. He wrote also Teaching Book of Taisô in School, in which he described the following four objectives for Taisô as a subject of learning: (1.) To achieve well-balanced development of every part of the body, (2.) to achieve complete development of each function, (3.) to develop the capacity of quick and lasting action, and (4.) to form the habit of maintaining discipline and a high regard for cooperation. These four objectives can be achieved only when combined, not individually (Nagai 1913, 11-12).
Furthermore, Nagai emphasized that, in terms of anatomy, it is important to keep the chest straight because it is the most fundamental and important part of the human body (Nagai 1913, 38).
It was Nagai who created the word command, Kiotsuke! (Attention!), and the attitude of attention which we often hear and see in classes of physical training and various parts of a school in Japan. He gave a detailed explanation of the way to deliver a command and the way to come to attention, using various illustrations (Nagai 1913, 54-55).

Fig.1: Correct Posture and Not-Correct Postures
Teaching Book of Taisô in School, 1913, p.56.

Nagai's ideologies did not only deal with Taisô in general, but were commonly applied to military Taisô, military discipline, marching, field day (Undô-kai) and fieldtrips, when teachers and students visited, for example, the Imperial Tomb of Emperor Meiji (1852-1912) on Tenchô-Setsu, 3 November, the birthday of Emperor Meiji, and shrines. In Japanese schools, one of the major purposes of the fieldtrip was to visit the Imperial Tomb (Nagai 1940, 4-28; The Editorial Committee, 1997, 41-43).
The regulations of school culture interacted deeply with the social conditions at that time, such as the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War. A school is a place where education is provided, but more than that, through disciplinary education and physical training, it can also function to mold one's body and spirit into a form desired by the nation while skillfully hiding the original purpose. Radio Taisô, from 1928 to now, was another tool for making the disciplinary body, especially in the time of war.

Radio Taisô
Radio Taisô was established in Japan in November 1928, as one of the memorial enterprises at the time of the enthronement of Emperor Showa (1901-1989). It was introduced by the Department of Simplified Insurance of the Ministry of Mail and Communication together with the Japan Broadcasting Association, the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Association of Life Insurance Companies (Editorial Committee, 1979, 27).
The Radio Taisô movement was created by students of Kikuo Mihashi, who was forced to resign from the Tokyo Higher Normal School because of frictions between Jigorô Kanô and Michiakira Nagai. Until today, Radio Taisô contains many elements of Danish gymnastics. There was some influence of Kikuo Mihashi, who worked, against the Minister of Education and Culture, for the popularization of Danish gymnastic exercise.
The use of Radio Taisô spread throughout schools, factories, corporations and local organizations. In 1931, Radio Taisô Clubs came into fashion, a trend that expanded quickly in juncture with block associations and National Youth Association groups. They first became popular in the Tokyo metropolitan area, but soon afterwards they were widely accepted throughout Japan, sponsored by the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of Education and Culture. In 1933, Radio Taisô participants numbered 44 million in total, 75 million in 1935 and some 122 million in 1937. Although Radio Taisô Clubs were primarily formed to assemble people for Taisô in the morning of summer vacation, these clubs also performed when hoisting the National Flag, bowing towards the Imperial Palace, singing the National Anthem and during patriotic marches (Editorial Committee, 1979, 93-94).
Under the name of Radio Taisô, the formation of everyday life was configured and the awakening of self-awareness of nationality through physical drills and calisthenics was reinforced. Furthermore, as the Japanese war machine accelerated, patriotism rose at a fevered pitch, and Radio Taisô was held at shrines throughout Japan, including the famous Meiji Shrine. It was then that Radio Taisô was elevated to the heights of spiritual ceremony to worship the Late Meiji Emperor through bodily movement and became a “prayer performance” to overcome national crises. It was considered the pinnacle of patriotic spirit when the nation concurrently performed Taisô together without the accompaniment of the Taisô music, which commonly lead people into mobilization.
In order to acclimate the citizens of occupied countries, such as Manchuria, Taiwan, New Guinea, to Japan's colonization, Radio Taisô dominated the airwaves. Even today, the Japanese overseas practice Radio Taisô to confirm their national identity whenever they gather.
A man who participated in Radio Taisô at his company at that time expressed this as follows: “May the day come as soon as possible when Radio Taisô is practiced all over Japan in accord with the sound of ‘one, two, three...’ and also its universal application! It will be proven to be the greatest boon for the national health. The crystallization of the consolidation of the people will thereby be soon revealed as the spirit of substantial strength without ornament. The Japanese spirit, loyalty to the Emperor and love of our country will imperceptibly gradually reach our glorious Land of Rice in harmony” (Niisato 1930, 99).
Apart from the contribution to national identity building, Radio Taisô can be seen as a bodily expression of modernity. “Radio Taisô is the means of mobilizing an individual's body for society as a blind effort towards modernity, decorated with such key words as health, rationality, efficiency and home” (Kuroda 1996, 111-112). It will be necessary more closely to investigate the connection of body and identity, modernity and nationalism in Taisô.
Radio Taisô is currently practiced widely at kindergartens, schools, factories, corporations, hospitals, prisons, meetings and festivities. Its main practitioners are primary school pupils during summer vacation through Radio Taisô Clubs at schools, shrine gardens and local festivities.
Taisô and Radio Taisô became convenient tools to create subordinate spirit through physical exercises to unify the nation under the Emperor. This was emphasized particularly during the wartime, and Taisô and Radio Taisô became effective tools for colonization during the Japanese invasions, though their effect may have remained superficial.
It has been said that “power is in hiding itself and usually takes the form of a norm to represent itself as something realistic and concrete” (Yamamoto 1984, 200). There exist some states of different nature in each individual's body. One of them is the “body” as nurtured by school culture especially through the process of disciplinary education and physical training such as Taisô.
The fact that the sports culture of Japan grew through school culture, means that the physical characteristics obtained under this particular influence are closely related to each individual's sporting body.
At the same time, Taisô is good for health and serves as a means of overcoming the modern condition of self-isolation through the spirit of group bonding. The meaning of Taisô has evolved in tune with the ever-changing social issues of the day, such as political power, nationalism, the Imperial system of Japan, gender, colonialism, health, cities and rural communities, the elite and the people. It was redefined throughout the war campaign, the high economic growth period, and onward into today’s Japan.

Hara or Tanden, the lower abdomen
There exists some bodily property that Japanese have traditionally safeguarded deep inside their body while practicing Taisô. It is the movement of Nanba and the recognition of Hara (or Tanden, the lower abdomen). Nanba is a “body technique” in which the right leg is moved forward together with the right shoulder, followed by the left leg together with the left shoulder, without swinging the arms back and forth widely. This body technique is used in martial arts and can also be found in other Japanese cultural contexts such as in the Oshi (pushing) of Sumo wrestling and in movements of Kabuki theatre. Japaneses, who used to walk and run in the way of Nanba by their own, had to be forced to change this practice by walking and running in groups, synchronizing the movement of their right leg/left arm and the left leg/right arm with wide arm swing. This was effected by disciplined group walk training developed in the army and in the modern educational system (Takechi 1989; Kohno 1990).
At the very foundation of Nanba we find the recognition of Hara. What is Hara (or Tanden, the lower abdomen)?
There are three Tandens as they are also called: the upper Tanden is the space between the eyes, the middle Tanden in the center of the chest, and the lower Tanden in the lower abdomen. The latter is in the focus of this paper. Whilst the Japanese naturally comprehend where and what the lower Tanden is, physically speaking it is located approximately two inches below the navel and a third of the way into the inner abdomen. This cannot be anatomically determined, but people consider this to be the center of the body.
It is therefore very important for the followers of Wushu (martial arts) and Budô to be explicitly aware of Tanden. It is the central point at which the spirit and body converge. In particular, following the Mujushin School, Tôru Shirai (1783-1843), who later developed his own unique school, perfected the training method. According to the Tenshinden-Ittoryu way of sword, the method is elaborated as follows:
“In our school, there are six basic elements that are taught to the beginner. Three are to be forgotten and the other three are to be learned and fully acquired.
The three elements to be forgotten are ‘the enemy's body (figure),’one's own body’ and ‘the sword one holds’.
It is of the utmost importance that one becomes unconscious of these. The three elements that are to be learned and acquired are ‘emptiness’, ‘one's own Hara (Tanden)’ and ‘Nobi’, the point of the sword used to thrust completely through the enemy's body.
The first element to forget is the enemy's body (figure). Should one be conscious of the enemy's body (figure), one becomes controlled by the enemy's movement and, with one's own Ki and technique thus constrained, one cannot move freely.
To forget one's own body is necessary because, as long as one is aware of one's own body, the shoulders tighten, breathing is laborious, and the body stiffens. This allows the enemy to strike easily. In such a condition, one cannot exercise one's natural ability.
To forget one's own sword is vital because if conscious of the sword one is inclined to depend on it, the arms become stiff and one cannot move and act naturally. If one is conscious of one's own body and sword, it will allow the enemy a chance to strike.
The three elements to be learned and fully acquired are emptiness, Hara (Tanden) and Nobi. The first is to nurture emptiness, thereby transforming air into a sphere and encompassing the enemy within it. It is of cardinal importance to drill Hara (Tanden), that is, to make the entire body flexible and harmonious and create a unify with Hara (Tanden)” (Kohno 1991, 223-224).
Here Shirai denies the dualistic concepts of polarity in everything. According to Shirai, since one is conscious of oneself, the enemy exists for one. Thus, if one is not conscious of oneself, the enemy vanishes. Therefore, the opposition disappears once one is no longer conscious of one's own body and the sword to kill the enemy and in consequence, the conflict also vanishes. If one forgets one's own body and its opposite altogether and one's mind attains serenity, everything will be harmonized into oneness. Thus the mind becomes profoundly serene and every delusion vanishes, allowing one to attain the spiritual state, in which one's self and the entire universe are one and the same. It is very significant that, in this flow of nature, one moves and acts naturally. By concentrating the Ki into Hara (Tanden) and emptying the mind of distractions, one can reach the condition in which oneself and the opposition become equal.
It is said that one can exercise this very stable power when one concentrates one’s Ki and Hara (Tanden) so that the mind and the body form an absolute unity.
In the concept of Hara (Tanden), the mind becomes a blank slate, tranquil and undisturbed. That is why Japanese athletes in competitions are urged to, “Concentrate your power in Hara”, ”Settle your Ki down in Hara”, ”Place your spirit in your loins”.

Ki, the energy of the body
Then, what is Ki?
Ki flows through the entire body in balance, and one is able to exercise one’s optimal physical ability when this energy is summoned equally from all points in the body (Kohno 1991, 310-312). Ki is to be distinguished from the mind. It can be regarded as the medium connecting spirit, emotion and body. Thus, the utmost power is produced when the mind, Ki and the body are fully one.
Keikaku Hakuin, the famous Japanese Zen master, originally called public attention to Tanden and circulated its idea widely by his book Yasen Kanwa (Idle Evening Talks on the Ship). Hakuin taught “the way of training Tanden” to young monks who became physically ill or mentally neurotic during the Zen training. It was essential to teach Tanden to the warriors who lived every moment ready to die so that they could live a healthy life in the concurrence of mind and body, and not be daunted at times of peril.
This method of training Tanden became a folk remedy and means of maintaining health. Pondering how to solve the various ailments of the body, the search was in Japan directed towards this method of training the intangible, Ki and Tanden, opposed to the scientific approach of Western medicine and psychology.
It was Harumichi Hida (1883-1956) who adhered to, mastered and popularized the “way of health” by means of Ki and Tanden training. Hida himself was in feeble health since his childhood and constantly on medication. At the age of 17, Hida determined to create his own unique “way of health” and wrote books on physiology and anatomy, which were widely read. His goal was to develop the utmost potential in every aspect of the human body including internal organs, physique and physical power. At the age of 20, through his assiduous endeavors, he was able to create and transform himself from a frail child into a robust, confident physical specimen maintaining a finely tuned constitution, physique and physical power. The core of this approach was to strengthen Tanden.
“The strength derived from Tanden is not a mechanical, physical force. It is a force interwoven with ‘life’, ‘the light’ and ‘the way’. It is strong and yet flexible. It is heavy, and at the same time light. It is brilliant and yet subdued.... This strength is no other than the ultimate unity of all forces.
This is the force of Hara (the lower abdomen) and Koshi (the loins) unified, which arises out of perfect posture. One cannot attain this state of physical enlightenment with a clouded mind. On the contrary, when this force is born, every function of thought stands still. The spiritual process instantaneously ceases. It is ‘clarity’, ‘serenity’ and ‘harmonious beauty’....
The strength of Hara (Tanden) is not a mere, insipid mechanical force. Rather it is a spiritual force, a vital force emanating throughout the entire body. It is a strong and radiating energy. At the very moment, the center of the body and spirit are unified, the force becomes so intensely focused that one properly channeled stomp of a foot will drive a foot-shaped floorboard into the ground or shatter a log with a 1-foot circumference” (Kohno, 1991:108).

Traditional body in the context of present-day education and sports
The concept of Hara (Tanden) has not yet been practiced in educational systems for reasons related to political power, but it has been practiced in popular body culture. However, facing the deteriorating of educational quality and the danger that children are losing their physical strength, some observers recently have begun to advocate the training of the traditional concept of Hara (Saitoh 1999, 2000).
In the field of sports, for example, a high school basketball team trained its players in the techniques of Kobujutsu, the ancient Japanese martial arts, improved their agility, and the team went on to rank as one of the top 16 teams in a All Japan High School Basketball Tournament (Educational TV, 19 September 2001). In another case, a high school baseball team trained its players attaching importance to Hara (Tanden) so that they could focus their thoughts more easily, and the team placed third in the prefectural high school tournament (Asahi Shimbun, 30 June 2001). Japanese athletes are achieving good results as they compete among the world's top athletes. Irrespective of the type of sport, the more a sport becomes international in nature, the more intensive experts reflect the physical characteristics of a “folk” or nation.
In sociological perspective, the body has been described as a “blank screen” or “sign receiving system”, ever open to be constructed and reconstructed by external texts or discourses (Shilling 1993, 39). However, there arise a lot of conflicts concerning the signification, form, and role of the body, and these conflicts change from one historical situation to the other. The body is more and other than just a “blank screen”, it is an “arena of conflict”. Therefore we must understand the microphysics of power and its transformation in accordance to the socio-political overtones of society today.
The human bodies are living by utilizing the physical and spiritual “mosaics” built in them through years of cultural and environmental stimuli. Therefore, attention has to be directed towards the complicated and multi-layered bodily aspects of the “people”, which are latent behind the word “sports” and its history.

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